Course description

Introduction

Water is the most vital element among the natural resources, and is crucial for our very existence. Without water, life as we know it could not exist. All living organisms including man, all the life supporting process of the earth system is heavily dependent on water. Living cells themselves consist mainly of water. The human body is two-thirds water- an essential nutrient in every function. It helps transport other nutrients and waste products in and out of cells. Water dissolves the carbon dioxide, oxygen and salts present in the body and distribute to the different parts through the process of blood circulation. It is greatly needed for the maintenance of proper body temperature.

Prior to the Industrial Revolution, global demand for fresh water was small compared to what freshwater ecosystems could provide. However, demands for this scarce resource have increased dramatically in recent times, with the growth in population, industrialization, and expansion of irrigated agriculture straining the capacity of freshwater ecosystems. Although many policy makers are aware of the growing problems of water scarcity, it is only one of many ways by which these ecosystems are stressed today. Freshwater ecosystems- comprising of rivers, lakes and wetlands, contain only 0.01 percent the world's freshwater, and occupy only 1 percent of the Earth's surface. Yet, these vital life support systems render services of enormous global value- several trillion US dollars, according to an estimate. Chapter 7 presents information on different aspects of fresh water ecosystems at global and national levels including topics such as goods and services, extent, alteration and impacts, supply and distribution, availability and scarcity, situation in Bangladesh with a focus on the dimensions of wetlands, ecological importance, degradation, groundwater, water resources management options and policy considerations.

Goods and Services

As a vital resource, freshwater is needed to supply us with food, drink, and our other needs and wants. In many parts of the world where lack of food threatens human survival, it is the lack of fresh water that limits food production. Among other crucial goods and services of the freshwater ecosystems, habitat for fish, mitigation of floods, maintenance of biodiversity, and recreational opportunities are notable. Freshwater ecosystems play a key role in sculpting earth’s surface, moderating the planet’s climate, diluting pollutants, degrading some of our wastes, and forming a major habitat for many of the planet’s aquatic creatures. The most important services revolve around freshwater supply are: maintaining high water quality, providing a sufficient quantity of water for domestic consumption and agriculture- mainly for irrigation, and recharging aquifers- underground water reservoirs. This scarce resource is not only essential for agriculture, but also for manufacturing, transportation (a route for transporting people and goods), and countless other human activities. Harnessed by dams and barrages where feasible, these systems also produce hydro-electricity, one of the most important renewable sources of the world.

Extent, Alterations and Impacts

Freshwater systems have been altered since ancient times, however, the rate of change accelerated markedly in the middle of the 20th Century. Rivers and lakes have been modified by a number of ways such as altering waterways, draining wetlands, constructing dams, digging irrigation channels, and even by establishing connections between water basins i.e. artificial canals and pipelines to transfer water. These changes have undoubtedly brought some human benefits- increased agricultural output, flood control and hydropower, but they also have radically changed the natural water cycle (hydrological) in most of the world's water basins. Modification of rivers has greatly changed the way through which river naturally act on the landscape i.e. in terms of flow, flood etc. In many cases, rivers have become disconnected from their floodplains and wetlands. Dams have slowed water velocity in many river systems, converting them to chains of connected reservoirs; this kind of fragmentations of freshwater systems has changed patterns of sediment and nutrient transport, affected migratory patterns of fish species, created migratory paths for exotic species, and altered the composition of riparian habitat, eventually contributing to changes in coastal ecosystems.  Since 1950, the number of large dams (more than 15 m high) in the world has increased nearly seven fold, from about 5,750 to more than 41,000. In 1998, there were 349 large dams (more than 60 m high) under construction around the world. The river basins with the large dams under construction are the Yangtze basin in China with 38; the Tigris and Euphrates basin with 19; and the Danube with 11. The PAGE (2000) analysis found that of the 227 major river basins assessed worldwide, 37 percent are strongly affected by fragmentation and altered flows, and 23 percent are moderately affected.

Water diversions and extractions have profoundly affected river flow on a global scale. The Huang Ho, Ganges, Nile, Syr Darya, and Amu Darya, all run dry at the river mouth during the dry season. According to an estimate, prior to 1960, the Amu Darya and Syr Darya used to discharge 55 billion m3 of water annually to the Aral Sea, but withdrawals for irrigation during 1980-90 reduced this volume to an annual average of 7 billion m3- 6 percent of the previous annual flow. By slowing down the movement of water, dams also prevent large amount of sediment from being carried to downstream- as they normally would be- to deltas, estuaries, flooded forests, wetlands, and inland seas. This retention of sediments can affect their water quality, the waste processing capacity of rivers, species composition and productivity. Since the slower moving water in reservoirs is not well mixed, is stratified into layers, with the bottom layers often depleted of oxygen. These oxygen-starved waters can produce toxic hydrogen sulphide gas, which degrades water quality.

Like other major ecosystems, freshwater systems harbour a diverse array of species. Twelve percent of all animal species live in freshwater ecosystems. However, physical alteration, habitat loss and degradation, water withdrawal, overexploitation, pollution, and the introduction of exotic species all contribute directly or indirectly to decline in freshwater species. These varied stresses affecting freshwater ecosystems occur all over the world, although their particular effects differ from region to region (watershed). Globally, scientists estimate that more than 20 percent of the world freshwater fish species- of which some 10,000 have been described- have become extinct, are threatened, or endangered in recent decades. According to 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals, 734 species of fish are classified as threatened; of those, 84 percent are freshwater species. 

Supply and Distribution

In terms of fresh water supply, the most resourceful continents of the Earth are South America and the Asia.  Although each continent has about 12 percent of the total land area of the earth surface, receives about 25 percent of the total global runoff. On a per capita basis, South America has the most abundant supply of fresh water.  Only 6 percent of the world population shares its 27 percent of the total runoff. However, most of the rainfall in South America occurs in the forested area of the Amazon basin, where poor soil and inhospitable natural conditions limit human habitation. In the case of Asia, much of the runoff occurs in areas suitable for traditional agriculture- a good reason why Asia has nearly 60 percent of the total world population. In terms of per capita water availability, the richest country in the world is Iceland, with an estimated annual fresh water supply of 670,000 m3 (177 million gal) per person. This is 6 times the annual per capita supply in Canada and the 68 times per capita supply in the United States. By contrast, Bahrain and Kuwait have no renewable water supply; they depend either on desalinized ocean water or imports. Another important consideration is the variability in annual global rainfall patterns. Rainfall is never uniform in either its geographical distribution or its annual amount received. Every continent has unique areas (regions) where rainfall is scarce because of topographic effects or adverse climatic conditions. In some areas, such as the African Sahel region, rainfall occurs in abundance some years but not others. Cycles of wet and dry years create temporary droughts. There are even some places on earth where it rains heavily, while other areas receive less rain or almost no rain at all. At Iquique in the Chilean desert for instance, no rain has fallen in recorded history. On the other hand, Cherrapunji in Assam, India recorded some 22 m (72 ft) of rain in a single year. What a contrast! Water shortages have their most severe environmental impact on semiarid zones where soil moisture availability is the critical factor in determining global distribution of flora and fauna. Further, with the increase in population and industrialization, water shortages in already naturally water-short regions of the world will intensify, and wars over water may erupt as it has already been observed in many part of the world. Projected global warming might also cause changes in rainfall patterns and disrupt water supplies, and we can’t predict which areas might be affected.

Water Scarcity and Availability

Different kinds of water uses affect the environment being appropriated differently. For example, much of the water withdrawal (total amount taken from a lake, river, pond or aquifer for any purpose) is employed in nondestructive ways and is returned to circulation in a form that can be re-used. Consumption- the fraction of water withdrawn that is lost in evaporation, transmission, absorption, chemical transformation or other form of human use is not available for other purposes readily. Degradation is a change in water quality due to contamination or pollution so that it is unsuitable for other uses or service. On a global scale, humans withdraw more than 20 percent of the total stable supply, the remaining is either too costly to tap (store, ship, purify or distribute) or there are ecological constraints on its use. Consumption and degradation together account for about half the water withdrawn in most developed countries. The remaining half of the water we withdraw would still be worthwhile for further uses as long as we could protect it from contamination and make it available to potential consumers. Table 7.1 shows global water availability between 1995 and 2025.

Table 7.1: Global Water Availability, 1995 and 2025

Source: World Resources Institute, 2001

Freshwater Shortages

The availability of fresh water determines the location and activities of human on the earth perhaps more than any other environmental factors. Fresh water is essential for nearly every human endeavor. It has the potential for being reused many times. However, water is a major limiting factor of the environment- both natural and human. The growing world population is placing great pressure on this scarce resource, creating long-lasting water shortages in many parts of the world. Major reasons that have been identified with the water shortages are: (i) growing demand, (ii) unequal distribution, and (iii) increasing contamination or pollution of existing freshwater supplies.  The problem of water scarcity is striking the global community. Studies suggest that over the past century, global water use by human being has increased about twice as fast as population growth. Given a fixed supply of water and a growing population, however, the amount of freshwater available has been decreasing. According to an estimate (calculated on a global basis), between 1950 and 2000, annual availability of water per person decreased from 16,800 m3 to 6,800 m3 per year. Humans now withdraw more than 20 percent (about 4,000 km3 of water) of the normal flow of the world freshwater annually. Between 1990 and 1995, withdrawals increased more than six fold. The average amount of water withdrawn worldwide is about 646 m3 per person per year by some other estimate.

However, this overall (world) average musk a grim reality- discrepancies in the real world water situation- as water supplies are unevenly distributed around the world, with some regions containing abundant supply and other a much more limited (Table 7.2). In river basins in arid and populous regions of the world, the proportion can be much higher. As one might expect, those countries with low population base and plentiful water supplies withdraw a very small percentage of the water available to them. Canada, Brazil and Congo for instance, withdraw less than 1 percent of their annual runoff. By contrast, Libya and Israel surface and groundwater withdrawal together account for more than 100 percent of their renewable supply. Regardless of the regional variations, in river basins with relatively high water demand (compared to the available runoff), water scarcity is a growing problem. 

Table 7.2: Water Shortages by Region

Region                                                                             Percent *

Middle East & North Africa                                              71

Sub-Saharan Africa                                                           26

East Europe & former USSR                                             22

Other Europe                                                                    20

East Asia and Oceania                                                        7

Latin America & Caribbean                                                5

Canada & United States                                                     0

South Asia                                                                          0

Source: World Bank, 1992

* Percentage of population living in regions with less

   than 2000 cubic meters per person per year

According to the PAGE analysis, 41 percent of the world's population lives in water scarce river basins. In other words, 2.3 billion people live in river basins under water stress, where per person water availability is less than 1,700 m3/ per year. Of these, some 1.7 billion people reside in highly stressed river basins where annual water availability is less than 1,000 m3/ person. Assuming current water consumption patterns continue, PAGE experts project that by 2025 at least 3.5 billion people- or 48 percent of the world's population- will live in water-stressed river basins. Of these, 2.4 billion will live under conditions of high water stress. Even water surplus regions (e.g. northeast Brazil, southern Africa, central India, eastern Turkey, northwest Iran, and mainland Southeast Asia) may in fact face significant water shortages during dry season. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has predicted that if the present pattern and trend in water use continues, by 2025 two out of every three individuals in the world will live in a condition of water shortage. Already 14 countries in Africa were facing shortage of water by 2000. Another 11 countries of the world are expected to be included to this list in the next 25 years.

Water experts frequently warn that water availability will be one of the major challenges facing human society in the 21st Century. It is the lack of this water which will be one of the key factors that will hinder development. According to an UN estimate (1997), one-third of the world population presently live in countries experiencing moderate to high water stress. Although water use is stabilizing in developed countries, demand will increase in developing countries where supplies are abundant. With the increase in populations, water scarcity is projected to increase significantly in the next decades, affecting half of the world's people by 2025. 

 Availability and Uses

Among important uses of freshwater systems, domestic, industrial and agricultural sectors are by far the best categories by class of service. Worldwide, agriculture claims about 69 percent of total water withdrawal, ranging from as high as 93 percent of all water used in India to only 4 percent in Kuwait. The downside of agricultural water withdrawal is that in most places, agricultural water use is highly consumptive and inefficient. Typically, from 70 to 90 percent of the water withdrawn for agriculture never reaches the crops for which it is intended. The most common type of irrigation is simply to flood the whole field. As much as half is lost through evaporation or seepage from unlined irrigational canals supplying water to fields. Most of the rest runs off, evaporates, or percolates into the field before it can be used.  Further, the runoff from fields is often contaminated with soil, fertilizer, pesticides, and crop residues, making it low quality.

Worldwide, industry accounts for about 25 percent of all water use, ranging from 70 percent of withdrawal in some European countries, such as Germany, to only 5 percent in less developed countries such as Egypt and India. Cooling water for power plants is by far the single most industrial use of water, typically accounting for 50 to 100 percent of industrial withdrawal. However, unlike agriculture, only a small fraction of this water is consumed or degraded. Much of the remaining water used by other industries (e.g. metal smelting and fabrication, petroleum refining, pulp and paper manufacturing, textile mills, fertilizer, cement and food processing) could be recycled and used over again in the factory. This would have benefits both in extending water supply and in protecting water quality. The Third World countries, although typically allocate only about 10 percent of their water withdrawal to industry, this pattern of use could change rapidly as they industrialize.

More than one-third of the world’s population- 2 billion people- now lack safe drinking water or adequate sanitation. The World Health Organization considers 2000 m3 (53,000 gal) of good water per person per year to be the minimum for a healthy life. Some 40 countries in the world fall below this level. The proportion of people living in water poor countries is high in Africa and the Middle East. Some countries situations are much worse than other. In Mali, for example, some 88 percent of the population lacks clean water; in Ethiopia it is 94 percent. There is also an urban-rural dichotomy as rural people generally have less access to clean water than do city dwellers. In the 33 worst affected countries, 60 percent of urban people can get clean water as opposed to only 20 percent of those living in the countryside. 

Groundwater: A Case of the United States

In the United States of America, for example, groundwater is the source of nearly 40 percent of the freshwater for agricultural and domestic use. Nearly half of all Americans and about 95 percent of the rural population depend on groundwater for drinking and other domestic purposes. Overuse of these supplies causes several kinds of problems including drying of wells, natural springs, and disappearance of surface water features such as wetlands, rivers, and lakes. In many areas of the United States, groundwater is being withdrawn from aquifers faster than natural recharge can replace it. On a local level, this causes a cone of depression in the water table. A heavily pumped well can lower the local water table so that shallower wells go dry. On a broader scale, heavy pumping can deplete a whole aquifer as happened in the Ogallala aquifer in the arid high plains between Texas and North Dakota, U.S.A. Many aquifers have been slow recharge rates and it may take thousands of years to refill them once they are emptied. When we pump water out of a reservoir that cannot be refilled in our lifetime, we essentially are mining a nonrenewable resource. Such is the case of Ogallala aquifer where wells have dried up in many places and farms, ranches, even whole towns are being abandoned. Covering aquifer recharge zones with urban or other development or diverting runoff that once replenished reservoirs ensures that they will not be refilled. Withdrawal of large amounts of groundwater also causes porous formations to collapse, resulting in subsidence or settling of the surface above. The U.S. Geological Survey estimates that the San Joaquin valley in California has sunk more than 10 m in the last 50 years because of ground water pumping. Around the world, many cities are experiencing subsidence. Many are coastal cities built on river deltas or other unconsolidated sediments Flooding is frequently a problem as these coastal areas sink below sea level. Some inland areas are also affected by severe subsidence. Mexico City- built on an old lakebed is one of the worst examples of such subsidence. Some areas of the city have sunk as much as 8.5 m (25.5 ft). The Shrine of Guadalupe, the Cathedral, and many other historic monuments are sinking at odd

Freshwater Situation in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is richly endowed with freshwater supply, and it is one of the most precious of natural resources in the ordinary lives of Bangladeshi people. The Freshwater in Bangladesh derives from underground and surface water sources- a network of dense river systems within the country, combining both upstream inflows and runoff produced by rainfall. Another source of freshwater, though at limited scale, is the Kapti Lake that extends up to 742 km2 in October (end of wet season), and shrinks to 268 km2 in April (end of dry season). The numerous fishponds are also a good source of freshwater, totalling a water surface area of about 1,800 km2. There is one more source of fresh water in Bangladesh, and that is the groundwater.

 Freshwater is the most vital element among the natural resources, and is crucial for the survival of all living organisms including human being. The economic growth and development of Bangladesh are highly influenced by its availability both spatially (surface and ground) and temporally (seasonal aspects). Spatial and seasonal availability is responsive to the nature of physiographic condition and monsoon climate of the country. As the lower riparian of the three major river systems, the Ganges-Padma, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna (GBM), Bangladesh constitutes about 8 percent of the combined catchment area. Over 92 percent of the runoff generated annually in the GBM catchment areas flows to the Bay of Bengal through Bangladesh. The contribution of local rainfall to the annual surface runoff is about 25 percent with marked seasonal variation.

However, freshwater uses in Bangladesh have been far from being satisfactory. According to an estimate (1993), annual per person use of freshwater in Bangladesh is 211 m3, much lower than the global average of 660 m3. Water supply in urban areas is even much below than the national average, and the problem is going to be worse due to the rapid growth of the urban population. From a supply side perspective, however, the internal renewable freshwater availability in the country is over 11,000 m3 per capita; the corresponding world average is less than 8000 m3 per capita. The largest use of water is made for agriculture, mostly in irrigation. Some other uses include domestic, municipal, industrial, fishery, forestry and navigation.   Factors causing water abundance and scarcity are presented in 7.3 with their environmental impacts.

Table 7.3: Factors Causing Water Abundance and Scarcity in Bangladesh with their Impacts

Pressures                                                                        Impacts

Water abundance (wet season)                                     

·        Geographical location and setting of the country               Increased flooding and water borne hazards;

(92 percent runoff flows through 7 percent of                        Increased river bank erosion; crop yield reduction;

the catchment area)                                                                 Disruption of livelihood system; damage of homesteads;

·        Monsoon climate (78 percent rainfall occurs in                   Damage of towns; sedimentation in floodplains;

The Monsoon)                                                                         Population displacements

Water scarcity (dry season)

·        Upstream withdrawal for different uses                              Decline in river water level , low stream flow; decline of

·        Low rainfall, gradual siltation in river beds,                       groundwater table; less access to safe drinking water;

       Dry season irrigation;                                                                 conflict among different users; navigation problem; quality issue

Surface Water: Wetlands

The United Nations Convention (Ramsar, Iran, 1971) on Wetlands of International Importance defines wetlands "areas of marshes, fen, peat, land or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with  water that is static or flowing, fresh or brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters". Bangladesh possesses enormous wetland areas. Some estimate the total area in between 7 to 8 million ha, or about 50 percent of the total land surface including estuaries and the mangrove swamps i.e. the Sundarbans. However, a more realistic estimate of wetlands in Bangladesh covers an area of about 16,000 km2, or about 11 percent of the total area. The principal wetland areas are the rivers and streams, freshwater lakes and marshes including numerous fish ponds, haors, baors, beels and jheels. 

Figure 7.1: Fresh Water Wetlands                Figure: Fresh  Water Lake; Source: Google image

Dimensions of Freshwater Wetlands

River Systems: The river system comprises mainly of tributaries and distributaries of the three major river systems: the Ganges-Padma, the Brahmaputra-Jamuna, and the Meghna (GBM) including some minor rivers in the southeast, scattered underground water reservoirs as well as numerous wetlands- perennial and seasonal, like haors, baors and beels mostly found in the northeast region with certain exceptions.  The river systems traverse the country with a total length of about 24,140 km, covering nearly 7 percent of the national territory, flowing down to the Bay of Bengal. The total catchment area of the GBM river system is about 1.75 million km2, of which only 7.4 percent lies within Bangladesh covering about 87 percent of the total area of the country. The enormous discharge of the system is greater than any other river system in the world with the exception of the Amazon and the Congo. The intricate network of GBM system carries a huge annual discharge of 1.5 million m3 per second to the Bay of Bangladesh, which is double the flow of the Mississipi River. However, one of the most significant characteristic features of the freshwater ecosystem of Bangladesh is the seasonal influence in water availability. There is often excessive water during the monsoon season, causing frequent floods and water scarcity in the dry season, leading to drought-like situation, particularly in the northwest region of the country. During the lean season (February – April), the volume of surface water flow is at its lowest level- often less than one-sixth of the mean annual flow, creating widespread water shortage or drought. Even the combined water flows at the mouth of the Meghna estuary in the lean season become one-twentieth of the peak monsoon discharge.  

Haors, Baors, Beels, Jheels and Lakes: River system aside, freshwater wetlands are found in different parts of the flood plains of Bangladesh. These are natural depressions in the alluvial plain or ox-bow lakes locally known as haors, baors,, beels and jheels, and occupy an area of 1,236 km2. The largest of these are in the northeast, in the Sylhet Basin consisting of 748 km2 or about 61 percent of the total wetland area of its kind. About 27 percent of these static water bodies are found elsewhere in the northeast, and another 10 percent are located in the southwest. Haors are bowl-shaped depressions mostly of tectonic origin, occur between the natural levees of rivers, and are subject to annual monsoon flooding. Generally known as the Haor Basin, these are largely found in the Districts of Netrokona, Mymensingh and the Greater Sylhet region e.g. Tanguar Haor, Hakaluki Haor. Beels are saucer-like depressions that remain as perennial water bodies including a combination of freshwater marshes, lakes and swamp forests as well as the deepest parts of haors e.g. the Chalan Beel (now substantially shrunk due to human intervention) in the Rajshahi, pabna and Bogra Districts. Baors or ox-bow lakes are common in southwestern Bangladesh, formed due to the detachment of a meander from the main stream/ river, while Jheels are permanent freshwater bodies (marshes) of varying sizes. During the monsoons as streams and rivers overflow their banks, the wetlands 

get flooded, and as water recedes after the flood, these retain the water. While some of these wetlands dry up easily, others hold water throughout the year. Another source freshwater is Kaptai Lake, which usually extends up to 742 km2 at the end of the rainy season (October), and shrinks to 268 km2 at the end of the dry season (April). There is another source of freshwater- the fish ponds. These are numerous and scattered all over the country with a total water surface area of about 1,800 km2. 

Ecological and Economic Importance

As an important component of the freshwater ecosystems, freshwater wetlands are productive engines of inland aquatic ecosystems, the importance of which has only recently been realized. Freshwater wetlands serve the hydrologic functions of maintaining the subsurface water table through recharging the aquifers. They also help in the storage of excess water, and reduce the level of flooding by acting as buffers against floods. It is the dynamic nature of the hydrology that influences the productivity and diversity of wetland flora and fauna. In fact, the patterns of activity in crop production, fisheries and transportation follow an annual cycle of water from abundance to scarcity. The wetlands also perform other important hydro-morphological functions: provide space for flood retention, trap sediment, and facilitate the research of underground aquifer during the wet season. Wetlands contain 10 to 14 percent of the global carbon, although they occupy only 2 percent of the world's total area.  Wetland soils such as peat are more carboniferous than other types. Its sediments are consists of two strata: aerobic (top stratum) and anaerobic (bottom stratum), and these play a very important interactive role in the global cycling of carbon dioxide, sulphur, nitrogen and phosphorus. Decomposed organic matters in the top aerobic layer release carbon dioxide, while the bottom anaerobic decomposer release other gases such as nitrogen, nitric oxide, hydrogen sulphide, Sulphur and methane including carbon dioxide.

Wetlands are an important element of biodiversity in Bangladesh, having great significance- ecologically, economically and socially- at all geographic scales (i.e. local, regional and national). Biologically, these are the most productive freshwater ecosystems; nurseries and habitats of many types of fish including migratory. Freshwater wetlands are also the breeding and spawning grounds of many other species of fauna, and the nesting and wintering grounds of many species of indigenous and migratory waterfowls. Of the estimated 5,000 species of flowering plants, and 1,500 of vertebrate species, wetlands are the home of some 300 plant, and around 400 vertebrate species in Bangladesh. Wetlands also provide the habitat for a large variety of waterfowl- both resident and migratory, including a number of endangered species.  One study records (1993) that there are 282 freshwater wetland species of fauna in Bangladesh, representing 207 species of birds (78 are migratory), 33 species of reptiles, 18 species of mammals, and 11 species of frogs and toads. Another study in the same year reports that there are some 158 species of flora in the freshwater wetlands of Bangladesh belonging to 49 families. These plants provide refuge to animals including birds, source of fuelwood, timber, forage, thatching materials and medicinal plants, as well as a good source for human food and cattle feed- livestock fodder.

Among the other prime uses of freshwater wetlands in Bangladesh, fisheries are one of the most important categories- supplementing nutrition, providing employment and generating income to a large segment of the population. The inland capture fishery is based on the vast freshwater resources of the country (covering an area of 4.3 million ha), with some 270 species of fin and shell fish. As the wetlands become interconnected with links to the river channels during the rainy season, provide ideal spawning (breeding) ground for a large number of fish species and migration. The haors, baors, beels and jheels offer tremendous scope and potential for augmenting freshwater fish production. Further, thousands of varieties of rice are found in the freshwater wetlands of Bangladesh. During the monsoon period, freshwater wetlands provide the locals with the more easily accessible water transportation route. Moreover, people can derive aesthetic benefits from its scenic beauty, e.g. Eco-tourism possibility the Sundarbans.  This could be a means of generating income and obtaining employment for the locals. Finally, freshwater wetlands support large number of population than any other ecosystem, and have united the inhabitants into a coherent society, culture and life pattern, and made them self-reliant with subsistence type of economy.  

Degradation

Despite all these essential economic goods, beneficial services and ecological functions, degradation of wetlands has been going on in many parts of the world including Bangladesh. Tanguar Haor, an ecologically critical area in the northeast region of Bangladesh, is a good example of how freshwater wetlands are being degraded through mismanagement. It is one of the last remaining habitats of rare and endangered species of birds, and is the largest nesting ground of waterfowls in Bangladesh (about 100,000 migratory birds come here every year. The rivers of Bangladesh are now shrinking as a consequence of so many man made causes. Rivers are being encroached upon, deliberately filled up and are being expropriated by land-grabbers as private property. Prominent rivers flowing past urban centres are now under the illegal occupation of different interest groups. The channels through which water are flowing become narrow; the stream flow slackens; the raised riverbeds makes navigation difficult. The slackened flow and rapid sedimentation of the riverbeds are indications that the rivers are dying. This is a common sight along the river Padma. Dams across rivers although serve multiple purpose (e.g. water for irrigation and drinking, recreation, hydro-electricity production and fisheries development), the rivers on which the dams are built are often degraded in various ways. Dams intercept the swift flows of rivers, slow down the normal water flow and help the sedimentation process within the reservoir and along the riverbanks. The Kaptai Lake is a good example of such kind of dam on the Karnaphuli River. 

Impact of Farakka Barrage: Water resources management in Bangladesh is highly complicated by the seasonality aspect. What is a scarce resource at one time of the year becomes an abundant at another time. During the dry season (November to May), as less water becomes available, more water is held back in the upstream by the Farakka barrage. The inadequate flow of freshwater in the lower Ganges river system due to upstream diversion has become a matter of serious concern for the people living downstream areas; with the reduced stream flow, a large section of rivers are usually dried up.  This diversion of water in the lean season is not only causing environmental damage, but also weakening the agro-ecological resilience of the lower riparian areas (LRA) of the Ganges, which is irreversible. One of the most disastrous impacts of such reduction in freshwater flows is evident by a marked increase in salinity- both in surface and ground waters, particularly in the southwest coastal region of Bangladesh. Saline intrusion has adverse impacts on freshwater ecosystems in the mangroves, and in the estuaries of the GBM systems. 

The impacts of water diversion in the upstream are many and varied. The agricultural sector has been suffering from water shortages in the farmland, depletion of soil moisture, and the lowering of water table in aquifers (irrigation wells). A devastating impact has also been felt in the forestry sub-sector; the mangrove forest of the Sundarban (in southwest coast of Bangladesh) is now confronted with a rapid biodiversity loss, as the equilibrium of the natural ecosystem has been modified due to reduction of freshwater flow in the upstream. In the lower reaches, reduced stream flow of the Ganges in the dry season has increased salinity. With the fall of fresh water supply, there is intrusion of seawater further inland. The low flow of water has also caused a gradual decline of fish habitat in the LRA, with the drying up of seasonal water bodies and the shrinkage of perennial wetland areas. The dam not only hinders free movements of fish to upstream but also interrupt their spawning migration. This seems to be the case for migratory Hilsa fish. The decline in the stock of major varieties of carps in the Ganges-Padma river system is identified to be the consequence of the construction of the Farakka Barrage. Further, the decrease of the Ganges water flows in the dry season has already resulted in a widespread hydro-morphological change in rivers of the LRA. The extensive shoaling has modified the channel morphology of the river with corresponding reduction in navigability. In the rainy season (June to October), particularly when there is heavy rainfall in the upstream, the opposite is occurred- over bank flow are more common. This has not only caused an accelerated siltation of the riverbed, but also has increased the intensity of floods in Bangladesh. As the reservoir is unable to hold back all the water, a huge volume of water is released to protect the areas in the upstream and to some extent save the dam itself. As the river cannot quickly accommodate the sudden influx in the volume of water it has to carry, there is often extensive and devastating flooding in the adjacent areas. The swift current of the river even weakens the riverbanks, leading eventually to bank erosion. 

The freshwater wetlands of Bangladesh have been suffering greatly from the impacts of ever increasing population. Growing demand for agricultural land along with the expansion of urban areas and physical infrastructure has adversely affected the freshwater ecosystems. Vast tracts of freshwater wetlands also have been lost over the years due flood control, drainage and irrigation schemes in favour of rice fields, particularly in the Haor basis and the Chalan Bill. Cropping patterns in these areas have changed from local varieties to HYV Boro rice during the dry season. Shrinking of freshwater wetlands has negatively affected the environment experiencing a decrease in open water fish population, loss of biodiversity, and the gradual decline in wetland-based employment opportunities. The flood protection embankments have considerable modified the hydraulic regime- detrimental of sustainable management of the freshwater ecosystems. The continual loss of freshwater wetlands threatens the very ability of the to maintain the existing life support systems- resulting in the reduction of wildlife habitat and displacing the wetland-based rural livelihoods

Groundwater in Bangladesh

Groundwater- an important component of the freshwater ecosystems- is the most common source of domestic and irrigation requirements in almost all the areas of Bangladesh. The country is largely of deltaic origin with thick deposits of quaternary alluvium. This particular nature of Bangladesh is found to be conducive to the formation of large underground aquifers, with reasonably good storage capacity that are fed by the GBM river systems, and direct infiltration of rainfall, and monsoon flooding.  During the wet season there is abundant rainfall- the aquifers get recharged slowly as water infiltrates downwards through layers of soil. There is also annual flooding as vast tract of alluvial plain goes under water for an extended period; further, there are numerous rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, and wetlands. These conditions are sufficient to get groundwater recharged on a regular basis provide that aquifer suitability are met. 

As such, the potential for access to ground water in Bangladesh is still high. The country is not only rich in its supply but also has water reservoirs that are researched through monsoon rain, and thus replenished annually. It is mainly in the rainy season when most replenishment occurs in the form of recharge. This happens especially when excessive rainfall facilitates deep percolation of water through the sub-soil into the groundwater table. Heavy monsoon rain coupled with annual inundation aids the groundwater to rise near to the surface level  (except in the northwest region during severe droughts). The groundwater recharge- from monsoon rainfall and seasonal flooding- is often supplemented by the percolation of water through river beds; as rivers and lakes fill up, water percolates from the bottom of these water bodies and refills the aquifers. However, during the dry season, the opposite usually occurs; the water level in the rivers and lakes falls due to seasonal shortage, and water is discharged naturally from the aquifers into these water bodies. Prolonged drought condition also prevails in some years.  When the flow of the river is low, some of this groundwater flows back into the rivers from aquifer. Further, the groundwater in the coastal belt has varying levels of salinity; withdrawal of surface water in the upstream during the dry season affects the level of groundwater in the country. The consequence is a seasonal fall in the water table. It also increases the salinity of the shallow aquifers in the coastal region.

There is also regional variation in groundwater storing capacity and abstraction, which largely depends on the soil type of different regions in the country. The depth varies from quite close to surface to about 150 meters below the surface. As such, annual recharge of aquifers may not be uniform throughout the country.  Aquifers are generally poor in the Madhupur and the Barind Tracts where these are recharged mainly through direct infiltration from rainfall. Groundwater- though may be thought of as a renewable resource, it can no longer be considered as such; it should be rather treated as an exhaustible resource. The worldwide freshwater shortage attests to this reality. As we have already noted above, groundwater is being used in the United States on an unsustainable basis. In the case of Bangladesh there is no exception. While consumption of groundwater is increasingly rapidly, its supply remains limited.

Disputes over Stock: Although the geological structure produces excellent supplies of groundwater throughout the country, the supply has not yet been accurately determined. There are disputes among the experts regarding the total amount of economically extractable groundwater. Over the past two decades or so, several assumptions of groundwater resources in Bangladesh have been made by organizations such as Master Plan Organization (MPO), National Minor Irrigation Development Project (NMIDP) etc., but each with different conclusions, mainly due to their differences in assumptions and methodologies. Most estimates indicate that sufficient amounts of groundwater are available to meet most projected irrigation demands, although deficiencies may arise especially during the dry season. The answer to this question of availability of groundwater lies in the estimate of annual groundwater recharge.

The first assessment of groundwater in Bangladesh was made in 1984. Subsequently, the water Master Plan Organization (MPO), made three estimates in 1991: potential, useable and available recharge.  The potential groundwater recharge in Bangladesh was estimated in 1991 at 72,000 million m3. Useable recharge constitutes 75 percent of the potential recharge or 54,000 million m3. Taking into account geographic and physical constraints, MPO further reduced useable recharge to arrive at an estimate of available recharge at 21,000 million m3. With the expansion of the minor irrigation equipment's since the early 1990s, it had become necessary to re-estimate the groundwater resources of Bangladesh during the formulation of the National Water Management Plan (NWMP).

The current estimate of groundwater recharge in Bangladesh is 22 billion m3/ year. Despite varying estimates, there is a general agreement that Bangladesh will continue to depend on the groundwater resource to meet its growing demand in the domestic and agricultural sectors. Water experts believe that aquifer conditions are generally favorable for storage in the Old Himalayan Piedmont Plain, as well as in the Teesta, Brahmaputra-Jamuna and Ganges Floodplains. However, near the coastal areas, particularly where tidal influence is strong, groundwater is saline. In addition, the detection of arsenic in groundwater in most parts of Bangladesh since 1993 has completely modified possibility of groundwater.

Uses and Depletion: Because of its wide availability, groundwater use in Bangladesh is quite extensive. As the availability of surface water is not uniform- temporally and spatially, irrigation methods using groundwater became the mainstay of the Green Revolution in the early 1960s. In the past three decades or so, the consumptive use of groundwater has increased tremendously; agriculture has become more and more dependent on it. Overexploitation of groundwater in the agricultural sector together with its rampant use by rural households, urban dwellers, and the industries are depleting this natural resource base quite rapidly. Overexploitation of the groundwater and its degradation are indications that the resource is far from being used optimally.  There is an inter-generational effect of the use of groundwater, as the amount withdrawn now will not be available in the future. This leads to the question of sustainability, as much of the groundwater cannot be researched once it is depleted; it has accumulated over a long period. For groundwater use to be sustainable, replenishment must exceed the net quantity withdrawn from the aquifer systems.

There is evidence of depletion of groundwater in some areas of Bangladesh, mainly for crop growing. The country widely practices methods of irrigation that are dependent largely on groundwater, to meet the growing needs of increased agricultural production- mostly boro rice. Deep Tubewell (DTW) and Hand Tubewell (HTW) have traditionally been used for irrigating croplands. Total irrigation coverage under these methods was estimated to be 2.81 million hectares in 1996/97. It is expected that additional irrigation coverage of 2.23 million ha will take place under new technologies. However, groundwater being used for purposes other than agriculture has certain advantages- because it is of good quality, it is widely available, and it may be drawn conveniently at specific site where it is to be used. Due to the growing demand for freshwater, groundwater is being used without any regard to whether it is within the limit of being replenished.

Hand pumped tubewells are also being used to withdraw water for domestic uses. Majority of the people in rural Bangladesh now have access to HTW for drinking water. The government have plans to further increase the number HTWs in the rural areas to provide potable water, particularly with the help of UN specialized agencies such as UNICEF. Urban areas too, particularly the metropolis of Dhaka and Chittagong depend on groundwater for their water supply to a great extent. The problems in the urban areas are also acute. Because of the limited capacity of the local development authorities e.g. Chittagong Development Authority (CDA) and the Chittagong City Corporation (CCC) to meet the demand for water, the city dwellers themselves had sunk numerous HTWs on their own initiatives without the prior approval of the appropriate city authority.

Impacts: Since 95 percent of the drinking water in Bangladesh is derived from groundwater sources, increased abstractions to meet growing demands are likely to cause environmental problems such as lowering water table and saline intrusion. Bangladesh is now facing the adverse effects of such extensive use. Heavy dependence on groundwater for domestic, agricultural, and other uses has led to the depletion of this scarce resource. The water table in many parts of Bangladesh has fallen below the suction level of the tube wells. There are reports of a fall in the subsurface water table by 1 to 4.5 meters in different areas of Bangladesh, during different month of the year 1999. In the North Bengal, particularly in the District of Rajshahi alone, around 50,000 HTWs were reported to have become dry because of the falling of water 

table in the same year. According to a national daily report on March 1999, the groundwater level in Rajshahi was reported to fallen below 23 meters. Another consequence of aquifer depletion is saltwater intrusion. Along the coastline, overuse of freshwater reservoirs often allows saltwater to intrude into aquifers used for domestic and agricultural purposes.

Moreover, groundwater utilization in Bangladesh has now moved from entirely government control to the private sector. Due to uncontrolled operation and over-withdrawal, the water table in and around Chittagong Metropolitan City (CMC) had fallen by 2,5 meters.  Due to the similar reasons, the groundwater level of Dhaka Metropolitan City (DMC) was reported by a national influential daily in January 1999 to be falling by 1 meter annually. As fall in water table leads to subsidence of land, in DMC, between 1968 and 1990, land subsidence was reported to be up to 6 cm. With the assumption that water table has gone further down, it is most likely that subsidence may have increased.

The problem of arsenic contamination of groundwater (Chapter -    ) and its linkage with heavy abstraction of groundwater necessitated a re-thinking of the strategy to supply safe water from surface sources. The twin problems of groundwater depletion and contamination (discussed in Chapter ….water pollution) are the challenges of the 21st Century that Bangladesh has to confront with. How Bangladesh will handle the problems will very much depend on the strategy for survival; water planners are now in a dilemma to resolve the problems. 

Water Resource Management

River Systems: Prior to any watershed projects such as the construction of a dam or a barrage across a river is undertaken, an appropriate environmental impact assessment should be carried out. Any negative impacts arising form such projects should be taken into consideration including the assurance of mitigating measures. Countries sharing common rivers should manage their resources in a manner that maximizes not only their own welfare but also the welfare of the region as a whole. The problem of water scarcity with India will have to be resolved on a mutually rewarding basis. The Ganges Water Sharing Treaty with India signed on 12 December 1996 ensures sharing of water on 50:50, provided that the availability of water at Farakka is 70,000 cusecs or less.  This is a landmark treaty of 30 years; similar treaties for other joint rivers are also important for resolving our water crisis.

Watershed Conversion: Watershed conservation and management are economically and environmentally sound ways to prevent flood damage and store water for future use than building huge dams and reservoirs. In the United States, for instance, after disastrous floods in the upper Mississippi Valley in 1993, it was suggested that flood plain areas should be reserved for water storage, aquifer research, wildlife habitat, and agriculture rather than allowing residential, commercial and industrial development. It was thought that sound farming and forestry practices can reduce runoff; retaining crop residues on fields reduces flooding, and minimizing plowing and forest cutting on steep slopes protects watersheds. Similarly, wetlands conservation preserves natural water storage and aquifer research zones. A series of small dams that can be built with simple equipment and local labor on tributary streams can eliminate the need for massive construction projects. These have the capacity to hold water before it becomes a mighty flood.

Domestic Conservation: One could save as much as half of the water one now use for domestic purposes without bringing great changes in his/ her lifestyles. Simple steps such as stopping leaks, taking shorter showers, washing cloths and dishes as efficiently as possible can make a big difference in minimizing the water shortages that many authorities predict. For urban dwellers, the use of conserving appliances, such as low-volume showerheads, efficient dishwashers and washing machines, can reduce water consumption to a large extent. Other largest urban domestic water use is toilet flushing. In the United States, for instance, each person uses about 50,000 l (13,000 gal) of drinking-quality water annually to flush toilets. This is more than one-third of the total amount supplied to American homes each year.

Industrial and Agricultural Conservation: Perhaps half of agricultural water used is lost through leaks in irrigation canals, application to wrong areas, runoff, and evaporation. Better farming practices including techniques such as minimum tillage, leaving crop residue on fields, ground cover on drainage ways and inter-cropping could reduce these water losses dramatically. Nearly half of all water use is for cooling electric power plants and other industrial facilities. Some of this water use could be avoided by installing dry cooling systems similar to the radiator of a car.            

Price Mechanism: Water has traditionally been used as if there were an endless supply. Local water supply authorities charge customers only for the immediate costs of delivery. The cost of building water supply projects is usually subsidized, and the discount value of future supplies and foregone opportunities is ignored. In California’s Central Valley, for example, farmers pay only about one-tenth of what costs the government to supply water to them. The subsidy represented by this under priced water averaged almost $500,000 per farm annually in some areas. Much of the water supplied by the Federal projects is used to grow crops and there is little incentive for farmers to practice efficient use. In developing countries the supply is almost at a nominal cost or free. Some participatory price can be introduced for efficient service delivery and as recovery cost.

Wetland Management: In Bangladesh, much of the freshwater wetlands are either being degraded or lost to agriculture. The environmental values of these static water bodies should be recognized on a priority basis and public awareness should be heightened regarding their conservation. The government should enact laws and implement programs for their conservation and protection. The first and foremost step in this approach is to determine which of the freshwater wetlands have the highest socio-economic value in their present status. As it is often difficult to separate ecologically sensitive areas from those of less important one (adjoining areas), the protective measures need to be undertaken within the framework of national planning. Instead of planning to protect all the freshwater wetlands, it is lot easier to begin with the ecologically sensitive ones. As no single strategy is likely to be successful for conserving the freshwater wetlands of Bangladesh in the short-run, the environmental management should consider at least the three elements most experts believe: i) a moratorium of development for a few selected freshwater wetlands that are ecologically sensitive, ii) inclusion of environmental mitigation plan in development projects, and iii) restoration of degraded but important freshwater wetlands. In this regard, one of the major components of the Environmental Conservation Act (1995) is the declaration of “ecologically critical areas”, and restriction of the operation and process that can be carried on or cannot be initiated in these designated areas in noteworthy.

However, the overall management system of freshwater wetlands in Bangladesh is far from being satisfactory. According to many commentators, the existing legislation in Bangladesh is terribly inadequate for sustainable development of freshwater wetlands, and require systematic re-assessment including updating at regular intervals. Although the Wetlands Conservation Act, which was enacted by the Parliament in 2000, seeks to preserve wetlands already designated, the law needs further refinement in redefining freshwater wetlands to avoid confusion and misinterpretation in strengthening its enforceability. In doing so, key sites where bio-physical conditions influence vast tract of freshwater wetlands have to be identified on a priority basis. Examples of such sites may include areas already visited by internationally migrating waterfowl, refuges of brood-stock fish, and habitats by type of stands, and threatened species. For nesting birds, disturbance-free zones have also to be identified as sanctuary. The local residents and the concerned authorities need to be aware and sensitive towards the importance of these sanctuaries through conservation education programs. Demand for wildlife products can be met by setting up pilot breeding centers of suitable indigenous species, and expanding successful projects to other areas. The threatened species also needs to be identified, and steps be taken to protect them through in situ and ex situ conservation measures. Focus should be given to exploring the possibility of waste water reduction and recycling in combination with fish aquaculture. A truly effective policy regarding protection of the freshwater wetlands would also need the cooperation of stakeholders who use or manage these wetlands for different purposes. Any Any development project encompassing the wetlands should be undertaken with proper Environmental Impact assessment. Degraded hoar basins need to be stabilized; environmental education relevant to natural resources management should be emphasized.

Groundwater Management: Groundwater helps to maintain the flow of rivers, streams and lakes. The volume of water available in the aquifers depends largely on the rate of recharge. Any withdrawal of groundwater for domestic, agricultural and industrial uses should, therefore, keep in mind that the rate of recharge does not exceed. Otherwise, there will be depletion of this very important natural resource base. From a geographic perspective, groundwater recharge areas must be identified on a priority basis.  Natural depressions such as haors, baors and beels are useful fresh water storage areas. Draining water out from these areas for agricultural purposes may not be a rational practice at all. Recharge basins allow the stored water to gradually infiltrate into the ground and help to replenish aquifer. Appropriate measures should be taken to aid aquifer recharge capacities. This may be possible by channeling wastewater and surface runoffs into designated recharge basins.

As much of the groundwater cannot be recharged immediately once it is depleted, some sort of conservation strategy should be adopted to preserve this resource. All sectors using this resource can find solution to conserve it in their own ways.  As already mentioned above, agriculture is the major sector using groundwater for the irrigation. However, much of the water used is either wasted or lost through seepage and evaporation. Improved methods such as drip irrigation over spray irrigation, covering of drainage channels to prevent evaporation and lining with polystyrene sheets to prevent seepage can certainly replace wasteful techniques. Heavy dependence on groundwater should be reduced. Increased dependence on surface water as a potentially renewable source will be a useful step towards conservation of groundwater.

Withdrawal of river water by building dams across the rivers or diverting water flows through channels in the upstream may enhance water supply in the area. However, the reduced water flow in the downstream especially during the dry season adversely affects the groundwater resource there. Such is the case of Bangladesh as a lower riparian country. Water sharing treaties such as the one already signed for the Ganges River is an imperative measure may be considered as a role model for all other common rivers.

Much of the water used by municipalities and industries can be recovered through recycling- need proper treatment before it can be used again. People themselves can contribute a lot by changing their wasteful habits e. g. keep their faucets running whilst brushing their teeth, shaving beards, washing cloths, scrubbing pots and pans etc.  People seldom care about their dripping faucets or leaking pipes or overflow of upland water reservoirs. Easy availability of piped water and its low price in most urban areas mislead people into thinking that the supply is inexhaustible. In areas where there is huge shortage of water, people gradually learn to conserve.

National Water Policy

The government of Bangladesh has an established tradition of planning in the water sector. The First National Water Plan was prepared in 1986 under the newly created Water Master Plan Organization (MPO), which has done extensive work on quantification of both surface and groundwater. A new set of reports called the Second National Water Plan was launched in 1991. However, the extensive floods of 1987 and 1988 overshadowed further work on a national scale, and gave rise to the Flood Action Plan (FAP).  Though some elements of FAP were found positive, dissatisfaction with its approach led to its abrupt termination in 1997, which eventually paved the way for a more comprehensive approach. Keeping this end in view, the donors, led by the World Bank prepared a report in 1998 entitled "Steps Towards a New National Water Plan", which was received favorably by the government, donors and NGOs. A major achievement of the new plan was the National Water Policy (NWP), which was formulated in the same year. The policy strongly emphasized issues of economic, social and environmental sustainability. According to some authors, it has been hailed as the best policy document issues by any ministry in the government. The goal of the policy is to ensure progress towards fulfilling national goals of economic development, poverty alleviation, food security, public health and sanitation, decent standard of living for the people, and protection of the natural environment.  The main objectives of NWP, set out as guiding principles are to:

address issues related to the development of all forms of water- surface and underground, and management of these resources in an efficient and equitable manner;

ensure the availability of water to all groups of society including the poor and the disadvantaged, and to take into account the particular needs of women and children;

accelerate development of public and private water delivery systems on a sustainable basis with legal measures and financial incentives, including delineation of boundaries for water rights and pricing;

bring institutional changes that are likely to help decentralize the management system of water resources, and enhance the role of women in water management;

develop a regulatory environment under legal framework that will aid the process of decentralization, sound environmental management, and will eventually improve the investment climate  for the private sector in water resources development and management; and

develop a state of the art technology and knowledge base that will enable the country to redesign future water management plans with more economic efficiency, gender equity, social justice, and environmental awareness  through broad public participation.

The NWP is expected to provide guidance to all concerned agencies and institutions related to the water sector in ensuring the achievement of specific policy objectives. The NWP recognized that the governance and management of the water resources require a great deal of effort, particularly in coordinating the tasks of existing institutions, and in some cases, reform including the creation of new community based organizations. The two most important recommendations that have been put forwarded are: i) there should be separation of policy, planning and regulatory function at each level of the government; and ii) each institution must be held responsible for financial and operational performance. The NWP also recognized that an appropriate legislative framework is a prerequisite to effective implementation of the water policy. The government has already been urged to enact a National Water Code revising and consolidating the laws governing ownership, development, appropriation, utilization, conservation and protection of water resources. The NWP so far has provided the basic framework for the formulation of the National Water Management Plan (NWMP) in 1998 under the Ministry of Water Resources. The Water Resources Planning Organization (WARPO) has guided the preparation of NWMP by consultants, which was finalized by the end of 2001. The plan is expected to deal with three time horizons: short-term ( up to 2005), medium-term (2005-2010), and long-term (2010-2025). 

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